COMMENTARY ON THE SEVEN DEADLY SINS OF DANTE ALIGHEIRI: GREED
Dante places greed at the fifth level of Mount Purgatory. Earlier we had said that lust should be assigned to the fourth level of Mount Purgatory, and if we accept the descending order of gravity of sin indicated by the Decalogue, then we should assign greed to the fifth level.
Greed is at the core of sins against the seventh and tenth commandments, which in the Decalogue follow the sins against the sixth and ninth commandments, respectively.
Saint Alphonsus de Liguori identifies theft as one of the “four gates of hell,” among which he also includes hatred, blasphemy, and lust, and he explains why he believes greed especially presents a risk of damnation.
“Let us now pass on to the consideration of the third great gate of hell by which so large a portion of the damned enter; I mean THEFT. Some, so to speak, adore money as their God, and look upon it as the object of all their desires. The idols of the Gentiles are silver and gold (Ps. ciii. 12). …It is true that theft is not the most enormous of sins, but St. Antoninus says that it very much endangers salvation.
“The reason is because for the remission of other sins true repentance only is required; but repentance is not enough for the remission of theft: there must be restitution, and this is made with difficulty.
“…My brethren, see that you take not the property of your neighbor, and if during the past you have ever failed in this respect, make restitution as soon as possible. If you cannot at once make full restitution, do it by degrees. Know that the property of another in your possession will not only be the means of bringing you to hell, but will make you miserable even in this life.
“…Some persons take the property of their neighbor, and then are fain to quiet their consciences by alms-deeds. Christ, says St. John Chrysostom, will not be fed with the plunder of others. …These are descriptions of theft which require perfect restitution, and a restitution most difficult of all to make, and most likely to be the cause of one’s damnation.”
—Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787), The Four Principal Gates of Hell
Notable among the sins of greed today is that of corruption.
Corruption has been defined by The Oxford Dictionary as “dishonest or fraudulent conduct by those in power, typically involving bribery.”
Corruption has been around since time immemorial.
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Corruption originates from a Latin word: corruptus. The word is the past participle of corrumpere, meaning “mar, bribe, destroy”.
Corruption is as old as human history. The First Dynasty (3100–2700 BC) of ancient Egypt noted corruption in its judiciary.
…Greek historian Herodotus notes the Alcmaeonid family bribed the Oracle of Delphi priestesses, one of the most powerful mystical forces of ancient Greek. Dating back to 1400 BC, people all over Greece and beyond came to have their questions answered by the Pythia, high priestess of Apollo. The wealthy Alcmaeonid family offered to lavishly rebuild the Temple of Apollo with “Parian marble” after it had been destroyed by an earthquake. In return, Pythia convinced the nation-state Sparta to help the family to conquer and rule Athens. Since it worked, Aristotle noted even gods can be bribed!
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—Bimal Pratap Shah, “From our ancestors to modern leaders, all do it: the story of corruption,” The Conversation, September 7, 2018
Corruption today is very significantly changed from times past.
As states undergo the process of the modernization and democratization, our understanding of corruption transforms together with social and legal norms.
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Arnold Heidenheimer has divided corruption into three categories (Heidenheimer et al. 1978). “White” corruption includes acts that a majority of people would not consider worthy of punishment. “Gray” corruption includes acts that “some elements” would want to see punished, but others would not. “Black” corruption includes acts that a “majority consensus … would condemn and would want to see punished on the grounds of principle.” Heidenheimer suggests that as societies modernize, behavior that was once seen as “white” becomes “gray,” and may eventually turn “black.” Others have suggested that the concept of “corruption” develops as societies move from seeing governmental offices as private property to believing them to be public trusts.
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—Richard McGrath Skinner, “Political and Governmental Corruption,” Encyclopedia.com
Modernization and democratization advance together with economic development, and as the public treasury expands, so do opportunities for the state to undertake massive public debt. Because huge amounts of money are involved, numerous openings arise for theft by state actors who hold power with limited checks on its exercise.
The consequences of massive corruption at this level can be calamitous, with millions of people, entire nations, the international community included, drastically despoiled and damaged.
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As the global economy expanded significantly during the 20th century, levels of corruption increased as well. It is difficult to estimate the global magnitude and extent of corruption since these activities are carried out in secret.
The World Bank estimates international bribery exceeds US$1.5 trillion annually, or 2% of global GDP and ten times more than total global aid funds. Other estimates are higher at 2-5% of global GDP.
…Transparency International estimates Indonesia’s former president Suharto siphoned off anywhere from $15 billion to $35 billion. The Philippines’ Ferdinand Marcos, Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire and Sani Abacha of Nigeria may have embezzled $5 billion each.
…Corruption severely constrains poverty alleviation and economic development. In 2017, nearly 10% of Asians, around 400 million, lived in extreme poverty. Corruption siphons off funds intended for poverty alleviation.
Countries like Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Thailand and the Philippines all face pervasive corruption problems.
If developing countries can control corruption and enforce the rule of law, the World Bank estimates per capita income could increase fourfold over the long term. On average, the business sector could grow 3% faster. Corruption is also a de facto tax on foreign direct investments, amounting to around 20%.
Controlling corruption can improve many socio-economic indicators, including reducing infant mortality rate by 75%.
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—Bimal Pratap Shah, op. cit.
The political and economic conditions that define the modern state have magnified by several orders the ruin that may be wrought by corruption.
Corruption—“new sin,” entailing grave matter, we might add, of the modern nation-state.
Dante’s Aligheiri’s universe, Mount Purgatory in particular, is discussed here:
https://poetryofgonzalinhodacosta.blogspot.com/2017/01/the-universe-of-dante-alighieris-divine.html
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